The Law on Highly Migratory Fish Stocks: ITLOS Jurisprudence in Context

This paper discusses some of the relevant principles and substantive obligations that require elucidation in controversies over highly migratory fisheries, with a particular focus on some of the legal issues relevant in the Swordfish case before the ITLOS: The discussion first focuses on the law on high seas fisheries and particularly on the obligations to enact and enforce conservation measures, to produce and share information, and to co-operate in conservation. Subsequently, a focus on international environmental law allows further clarification on the relevance of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, the ecosystem approach to the conservation of marine biodiversity, and the precautionary principle. The analysis of relevant principles and obligations in these two areas of international law, i.e., high seas fisheries and international environmental law, including their interpretation and application in relevant ITLOS jurisprudence, may avail in illuminating some of the deliberately ambiguous elements in the law on highly migratory fisheries

Europe\u27s Reach: A New Chapter in International Chemicals Law

This article provides an international legal perspective on REACH. Since REACH is still under debate in the European Parliament and the Council, this piece addresses the basic contours of the likely political agreement expected in 2006, with a special focus on the relevance of human rights and trade law. After tracing the origins of REACH, this article explores the role of the main EU institutions involved in the development of the regulation. Next, this article looks at the core elements of REACH, focusing on objectives, principles, requirements, and impacts. An examination of some of the trade-related issues debated at the World Trade Organization (“WTO”) sheds light on a possible trade challenge against REACH

Submission to UNCITRAL Working Group II on International Arbitration

Most investment treaties grant investors the procedural right to bring claims against governments through investor-state arbitration. Under the arbitration rules that commonly govern the proceedings, including the arbitration rules developed by a United Nations body, the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), these disputes can remain hidden from public view from their commencement through conclusion. Recognizing the public interest in investor-state arbitration, UNCITRAL has been working since 2010 to develop a legal standard that would ensure transparency in investor-state arbitration. Committed to the belief that transparency in investor-state arbitration is fundamental for accountability, good governance, and the rule of law, elements which are, in turn, crucial for sustainable development, the Vale Columbia Center on Sustainable International Investment (VCC) has been participating in the UNCITRAL process and has drafted various notes and proposals in support of the effort to increase public access to information regarding these disputes. In October 2012, the VCC and partners, the Center for International Environmental Law and the International Institute for Sustainable Development, prepared this background note describing and analyzing the key issues involved in UNCITRAL's work to increase transparency in investor-state arbitrations

Advanced digital resonant control techniques for grid-connected voltage source converters

It is a fact that the presence of power distributed generation sources in the electrical sector is growing exponentially worldwide. This can mainly be explained by the increase of renewable energy production, which involves principally grid-connected single- and three-phase Voltage Source Converters (VSCs). Regarding the regulations for medium and high power inverters, it is not enough to generate currents with low harmonic content and a unity-power-factor operation: grid-connected VSCs also have to work properly when the electrical grid presents non-ideal characteristics such as frequency variations, sags, swells or a high impedances, among other disturbances. In line with the above and to improve the grid currents quality, LCL filters are widely used at the input of VSCs for their attenuation capabilities at high frequencies. However, they present a big resonance that may produce robustness issues. In order to study this problem and to stablish a basis for the controllers design, the grid-connected VSC mathematical models have been obtained, analysed and discretised, including passive and active LCL resonance damping techniques. Adaptive Feedforward Cancellation (AFC) is the control technique addressed in this research work, leading to robust designs which are able to face all the grid disturbances aforementioned. AFC controllers, formed by resonators, have been considered in continuous- and discrete-time forms, and presenting infinite and finite gain, along with an anti-windup system for limitation purposes. The development of an AFC control design method (directly in discrete time), and the use of automatic code generation tools, have allowed a fast implementation of the resonant controllers into a Digital Signal Processor (DSP). The experimental results obtained from the VSC prototypes (also developed during this thesis), prove the robustness of this control technique.Es un hecho que la presencia de fuentes de generación de energía distribuida en el sector eléctrico está creciendo exponencialmente a nivel mundial. Esto se debe esencialmente al incremento de la producción de energías renovables, que están estrechamente relacionadas con convertidores estáticos de potencia monofásicos y trifásicos (VSC) conectados a la red eléctrica. Con respecto a la normativa en el ámbito de los inversores de media y alta potencia, ya no es solamente necesario que éstos generen unas corrientes con un bajo contenido en armónicos y un factor de potencia unitario: el funcionamiento de dichos equipos debe ser correcto frente a situaciones no ideales de la red como variaciones de frecuencia, huecos de tensión o redes débiles, entre otros. En consonancia con lo anterior y para mejorar la calidad de las corrientes de red, los filtros LCL son ampliamente utilizados a la entrada de los VSC por su gran atenuación a altas frecuencias. Sin embargo, la gran resonancia que presentan puede generar problemas de robustez. Para estudiar este fenómeno y crear una base para el diseño de los controladores, se han obtenido, analizado y discretizado los modelos matemáticos de los VSC conectados a la red, incluyendo técnicas de amortiguación pasivas y activas para el filtro LCL. La técnica de control abordada en este trabajo de investigación se denomina Adaptive Feedforward Cancellation (AFC), con la que se han conseguido diseños robustos y capaces de hacer frente a las perturbaciones en la red detalladas anteriormente. Los controladores AFC, formados por resonadores, han sido considerados en tiempo continuo y discreto, y con ganancias infinita y finita, junto con un sistema de limitación anti-windup. El desarrollo de un método de diseño de control AFC (directamente en tiempo discreto) y el uso de herramientas de generación automática de código, han permitido una rápida implementación de los controladores resonantes en un procesador digital de señales (DSP). Los resultados experimentales obtenidos con los prototipos de convertidores monofásico y trifásico (también desarrollados durante esta tesis), confirman la robustez de esta técnica de control.C’est un fait que la présence de sources de génération d’énergie distribuée dans le secteur électrique est en train de croître exponentiallement à niveau mondiale. Ceci est principalement à cause de l’augmentation de la production d’énergies renouvelables, qui est étroitement liée à des convertisseurs statiques de puissance monophasés et triphasés (VSC) connectés au réseau électrique. Par rapport aux régulations dans le domaine des onduleurs de moyenne et forte puissance, il n’est pas seulement nécessaire qu’ils génèrent des courants à bas contenu harmonique avec un facteur de puissance unitaire: le fonctionnement de ces systèmes doit être correct face à des situations non idéales du réseau comme variations de fréquence, creux de tension ou réseaux faibles, parmi d’autres. Dans cet esprit et pour améliorer la qualité des courants du réseau, les filtres LCL sont vastement utilisés à l’entrée des VSC pour leur capacité d’atténuation aux hautes fréquences. Néanmoins, la grande résonance qu’ils présentent peut générer des problèmes de robustesse. Pour l’étude de ce phénomène et créer une base pour la conception des contrôlleurs, les modèles mathématiques des VSC ont été obtenus, analysés et discretisés, y compris techniques d’amortissement passives et actives pour le filtre LCL. La technique de commande abordée dans ce travail de recherche s’appelle Adaptive Feedforward Cancellation (AFC), avec laquel il a été possible d’obtenir des contrôlleurs robustes et capables de faire face aux perturbations du réseau nommées précédemment. Les contrôlleurs AFC, constitués de résonateurs, ont été considerés en temps continu et discret, et avec des gains infinis et finis, ainsi qu’un système de limitation anti-windup. Le développement d’une méthode de conception de commande AFC (directement en temps discret) et l’utilisation d’outils de génération de code automatique, ont permis une implementation rapide des contrôlleurs résonantes dans un processeur de signal numérique (DSP). Les résultats expérimentaux obtenus avec les prototypes des convertisseurs monophasé et triphasé (aussi développés pendant cette thèse), réalerment la robustesse de cette technique de commande.És un fet que la presència de fonts de generació d’energia distribuïda al sector elèctric està creixent exponencialment a nivell mundial. Això es deu principalment a l’increment de la producció d’energies renovables, directament vinculades a convertidors estàtics de potència monofàsics i trifàsics (VSC) connectats a la xarxa elèctrica. Pel que fa a la normativa en l’àmbit dels inversors de mitjanes i altes potències, ja no és solament necessari que els convertidors generin corrents amb baix contingut harmònic amb un factor de potència unitari, sinó que el funcionament d’aquests equips deu ser correcte enfront de situacions no ideals de la xarxa com ara variacions de freqüència, forats de tensió o xarxes febles, entre altres. D’acord amb l’anterior, i per millorar la qualitat dels corrents de xarxa, els filtres LCL són àmpliament utilitzats a l’entrada dels VSC per la seva capacitat d’atenuació a altes freqüències. No obstant això, la gran ressonància que presenten pot generar problemes de robustesa. Per estudiar aquest fenomen i crear una base per al disseny dels controladors, s’han obtingut, analitzat i discretitzat els models matemàtics dels VSC connectats a la xarxa, incloent tècniques d’esmorteïment passives i actives per al filtre LCL. La tècnica de control abordada en aquest treball de recerca es denomina Adaptive Feedforward Cancellation (AFC), amb la qual s’han aconseguit dissenys robustos i capaços de fer front a les pertorbacions de la xarxa detallades anteriorment. Els controladors AFC, formats per ressonadors, han sigut considerats en temps continu i discret, i amb ganàncies infinita i finita, juntament amb un sistema de limitació anti-windup. El desenvolupament d’un mètode de disseny de control AFC (directament en temps discret) i l’ús d’eines de generació automàtica de codi, han permès una ràpida implementació dels controladors ressonants en un processador digital de senyals (DSP). Els resultats experimentals obtinguts amb els prototips de convertidors monofàsic i trifàsic (també desenvolupats durant aquesta tesi), confirmen la robustesa d’aquesta tècnica de contro

Conservation with Justice: A Rights-Based Approach

This article suggests a rights-based approach (RBA) to conservation of environmental resources. The article points out benefits of an RBA model, such as identifying the causes of environmental impacts on citizens’ human rights and bettering the regulation of environmental resources. However, the RBA also poses challenges, such as resistance from non-State actors, comparing the importance of different rights, and a commitment of many resources. The article next identifies substantive and procedural rights provided by international law. An RBA implicates, among others, the right to life, the right to health, the right to an adequate standard of living, the right to work, the rights to religion and culture, the right to property, the right to privacy and home life and the rights to information and participation. The article concludes by providing detailed guidance about how to implement an RBA, and the main steps include analyzing the situation, disseminating information, guaranteeing participation, making a decision about the activity, monitoring and evaluating the RBA, and ensuring the rights by enforcement of the commitments undertaken by various actors

Potentially Toxic Elements in Urban Soils of Havana, Cuba

Urban soils are characterised by a strong anthropogenic influence. Potentially toxic elements were studied in various horizons of 35 urban soils in Havana, Cuba, classified as Urbic or Garbic Technosols. Pseudo-total, available, and acid-oxalate extractable concentrations were determined. The pseudo-total concentrations were generally higher than the average values for the world’s soils but similar to those published for urban soils. In a few cases, very high values of copper or lead were found. Nickel and chromium concentrations exceeded the maximum allowable concentrations for agricultural soils in 22% and 12% of samples. Vanadium concentrations were always very high. There was minimum enrichment of most samples in Co, Mn, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, and Ni, but outliers reached moderate or significant enrichment. Enrichment was significant for V, while for Pb, Zn, and Hg the median values denoted moderate enrichment, but outliers reached significant enrichment in Zn and extremely high enrichment in Pb and Hg. The available elements amounted to between 0.07% of the pseudo-total vanadium and 30% lead and cadmium. The published toxicity limits for bioavailable Cd, Mn, Ni, and Pb were exceeded in 14%, 39%, 10%, and 56% of samples, respectively. The concentrations of pseudo-total total iron, cobalt, chromium, and nickel, and available cobalt, nickel and titanium were significantly lower in soils with gleyic properties (reducing conditions)S